Abstract:

Understanding and measuring user engagement (UE) in Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL) remains a complex challenge. Existing approaches rely heavily on self-report instruments—widely used to assess usability, perceived usefulness, flow, engagement, aesthetics, effort expectancy, and retention—as well as neurophysiological measures. While these tools offer valuable insights, they remain fragmented and lack a unified perspective capable of capturing the full multidimensionality of UE in TEL. Moreover, most instruments overlook the ethical and wellbeing-oriented dimensions increasingly emphasized by international agendas, including the UN Sustainable Development Goals, which highlight the importance of technologies that support psychological wellbeing and human potential.

This paper presents a study that aims to map existing UE research tools, examine the literature on UE in TEL, and develop an integrative framework and scale tailored to TEL contexts. The study adopts the lenses of digital ethics, positive computing, and reflective design to rethink how engagement should be conceptualized and measured in ways that account for user motivation, ethical concerns, and digital wellbeing. It is guided by three research questions:
(1) Which attributes of UE should be considered when designing TEL solutions that promote stimulating, pleasurable, and wellbeing-oriented experiences?
(2) Can a wellbeing-sensitive UE scale, informed by positive computing and reflective design, support more balanced and ethical user experiences?
(3) To what extent can ethical and reflective design practices inform TEL solution development?

The study assumes that UE is multifaceted and context-dependent; that users increasingly expect technologies to provide motivating and enjoyable experiences; that design features, including dark-pattern-like mechanisms, can either support or undermine user autonomy; and that digital wellbeing offers a critical lens for developing technologies that foster human potential. The study investigates the UE attributes users perceive as most relevant in digital TEL systems, analysing them through motivation, learning goals and digital wellbeing. It identifies design features that support wellbeing while sustaining meaningful interaction and translates these insights into a comprehensive UE scale. Drawing on positive computing, reflective design, Self-Determination Theory, Flow Theory, and the Technology Acceptance Model, the study also examines how engagement-driving design features can be ethically reconsidered to promote sustained interaction without compromising users’ wellbeing.

Keywords:

User Engagement, Digital Wellbeing, Technology-Enhanced Learning, Reflective Design, Framework.